Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner

(1904- 1990)

B. F. Skinner was born in northeastern Pennsylvania in 1904. He studied English and Classics at Hamilton College where he received an A.B. in 1926. At this point in his life he wanted to be a writer, but became discouraged and entered the graduate program in psychology at Harvard, earning his Ph.D. under E. G. Boring in 1936. His dissertation, regarded as a classic of its time, sowed the seeds of the theoretical position to which he adhered throughout his career. In it he argued that a reflex arc, a widely debated concept of the day, was nothing more than the relationship between a stimulus and a response. In fact all behavior could be explained by examining the stimuli that bring it about.

After leaving graduate school, Skinner completed several post-doctoral fellowships before accepting the position of Assistant Professor at the University of Minnesota (1936-1945). After a short stint at Indiana University (1945-47), he returned to Harvard University where he was Professor of Psychology until his death in 1990..

Skinner is considered by many to be the most important figure in twentieth-century psychology. His contributions have been numerous and varied: within education he is probably best known as the originator of programmed instruction and teaching machines, and behavior modification techniques. Throughout his career he has insisted that psychology be a scientific, empirically driven discipline, devoted to the collection of massive numbers of observations of behaviors and the stimuli that bring them about. He had little use for theory, believing that explanations for behavior will emerge from empirical observations and the generalizations that describe them. His views are sometimes called "Radical Behaviorism" because they embody strict behavioral principles to such a great extent.

Skinner's first major book, The Behavior of Organisms (1938), discussed the basic tenets of his form of behaviorism, called operant conditioning, and described the results of numerous experiments. His 1948 utopian novel, Walden II, outlined an ideal community based upon his principles of conditioning wherein every aspect of life is controlled by positive reinforcement. The idea of creating a utopian community continued to interest Skinner throughout his life. Skinner's second major academic book, Science and Human Behavior (1952), applied his behavioral principles outside the laboratory ---to social issues, law, education, psychotherapy and the like. In this work, Skinner stated flatly that the human organism is a machine and like any other machine, behaves in lawful, predictable ways in response to external stimuli.

Recognizing that his system should include an analysis of language behavior in humans, Skinner published his notorious Verbal Behavior in 1957. This book was roundly criticized, most notably by the linguist Noam Chomsky in a devastating review published in 1959. In the mind of many, neither Skinner nor his advocates have ever successfully responded to the criticisms raised by Chomsky. This review is often marked as the beginning of the decline in influence of behavioral psychology. Among Skinner's other many books, The Technology of Teaching (1968), Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971) and his autobiographical trilogy (the last part, A Matter of Consequence, was published in 1983) are of particular interest.

In 1958 the American Psychological Association recognized Skinner's contributions to psychology by granting him its Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award. Further honors followed: the National Medal of Science in 1968, the gold medal from the American Psychological Association in 1971, and in that same year he appeared on the cover of Time magazine. Despite his numerous critics and his unyielding position on a broad range of issues, there is no question about Skinner's influence and impact on contemporary psychology. And whether criticism or praise will prevail in coming years, Skinner's place in the history of psychology seems assured.

Skinner died August 18, 1990 after a long battle with leukemia. He continued to write and work until just before his death. In fact, he was given a lifetime achievement award by the American Psychological Association and delivered a 15 minute address concerning his work only a few days before he passed away.