Behaviorism Como A Teoria Da Aprendizagem De A
History
Como muitas idéias no campo do psychology, os filósofos
podem seguir a parte traseira humana do comportamento ' o começo ' -
400 BC, quando Aristotle
Associationists
Aristotle, em seu essay " memória " mostrou o foco forte na
associação - um predecessor do behaviorism. Acreditou, as
associações (para o exemplo, entre um haystack e uma vaca) são
feitas porque os objetos que são associados são similares, ou
oposto, ou seaproximam-se. Muitos outros filósofos seguiram seus
pensamentos:
- Thomas Hobbes (1650) escreveu de elementos fundamentais dos
pensamentos - sensation, recordação, e seqüência, usando termos
como o movimento, comunicação do movimento, e inércia.
- David Hume (1740) forçou que as associações que ocorrem se
transformam freqüentemente firma e que sempre que o antecedente
ocorre, o conseqüente está limitado para seguir.
-
Thomas bronzeia (1820) adicionou os conceitos da
freqüência, do recency, e do vividness na associação.
- Alexander Bain (1855) fêz exame do associationism a um
sentido novo. Anotou que um deve discriminar entre artigos sensory
antes que estejam associados.
- Herman Ebbinghaus formulou uma " lei da freqüência " que
prendesse que aprender (associação) aumentou em proporção à
freqüência com que uma associação particular foi feita. Formulou
também uma " lei do recency " que dissesse que as associações
recentemente feitas eram as mais fortes e que deterioram sobre o
tempo.
Pavlov
O movimento behavioristic no psychology começou a
cristalizar-se com a descoberta do physiologist russian Ivan Petrovich
Pavlov. Em 1902, durante seu estudo das respostas salivary dos cães,
construiu um dispositivo que medisse a quantidade de saliva secreted.
**time-out** Pavlov descobr que cão (mais famoso cão mundo, mas
sem um nome) saliva começ para flu antes que alimento est real
apresent - este est cham um condicion reflex e
stimulus, este caixa, alimento prato, est cham um condicion
stimulus . O reflex condicionado é chamado a resposta
condicionada hoje. Watson
John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) escreveu psychology no seu Comportamento do livro (1948) " porque as vistas do
behaviorist ele são uma filial experimental puramente objetiva da
ciência natural. Seu objetivo teórico é a predição e o controle
do comportamento. Introspection não dá forma a nenhuma parte
essencial de seus métodos. " Watson acreditou que aprender era um processo de condicionar
reflexes (respostas) através da substituição de um stimulus para
outro. Sua experiência mais famosa era Albert - uma criança que se
tornasse receosa de todos os objetos furry em conseqüência de
condicionar.
Thorndike
Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) reivindicou que " uma
definição ou uma descrição simples boa da mente de um homem são
que é seu sistema da conexão, adaptando as respostas do pensamento,
o sentimento, e a ação que faz à situação que se encontra com.
(1943). " formulou sua " lei do efeito " que prendeu que a recompensa
teve um efeito positivo forte no ser humano que aprende mas que a
punição teve quase nenhum efeito em extinguir a aprendizagem. Sua
outra teoria famosa é a " lei do exercício " que prendeu que o mais
uma conexão da stimulus-resposta foi praticado, mais forte se
tornaria; menos que foi usado, mais fraco tornar-se-ia. Entre Thorndike & Skinner
Antes de emergir do gigante behavioristic seguinte, let's
fazer exame de um olhar em alguns contribuinte entre os anos peak de
Thorndike e de skinner:
- Karl Lashley, um de estudantes de Watson, causado os
behaviorists para dar mais consideração ao papel do sistema nervoso
central em explicar o comportamento. Acreditou que o comportamento
deve finalmente ser explicado nos termos dos processos que ocorrem no
cérebro.
- Edwin R. Gutherie (1886-1959) acreditou que aprender ocorreu
na força cheia na primeira experimentação. Formulou sua " lei da
associação " como " uma combinação dos stimuli que acompanhasse
uma vontade do movimento em seu retorno tende a ser seguida por esse
movimento. "
- Clark L. Hull acreditou que o modelo do comportamento deve
ser sor em vez do S-R. O O symbolizes o organismo. Reconheceu que um
stimulus dado produziria uma variedade das respostas em organismos
diferentes; conseqüentemente, deve haver umas circunstâncias que
existem dentro de um indivíduo que interaja em várias maneiras com o
stimulus apresentado.
Skinner
Deixado não o forte seja cozened perto está e não está
era e não
era. A verdade a ser procurada dentro
faz e não. Skinner (1962)
Burrhus. F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) acreditou que o estudo do
comportamento deve descansar em que organismos fazem e não fazem, e
isso é todas as uma atenção do pagamento da necessidade a.
Desenvolveu o conceito do operant que condiciona e concentrou-o na
observação e na manipulação do comportamento. Em seu artigo 1954
" a ciência da aprendizagem e da arte de ensinar ", ilustrou como o
comportamento humano pode ser dado forma ràpidamente e sem ameaça
aversive though o uso do reforço positivo. Em seu livro 1971
além da liberdade e da dignidade , discute que os
conceitos da " liberdade " e da " dignidade " são uns úteis não
mais longo na sociedade moderna. O homem não está verdadeiramente
livre escolher, diz, porque que pessoa fará em uma situação dada
depende quase inteiramente de o que lhe aconteceu no passado. O
skinner contends que nós devemos aprender controlar sistematicamente
o comportamento para produzir os povos que são bons e direito-se
ocuparam. Nós devemos expandir este que controla a toda a vida.
Main Ideas
The basic ideas of behaviorism are: human
behavior is a product of the Stimulus-Response interaction and
that behavior are modifiable. Study of animal is beneficial in
that it help us understand/analyze human behavior.
Stimulus - Response
All complex forms of behavior,
including reasoning, habit , and emotional reactions are
composed of simple stimulus-response events which can be see and
measured. We can trace a child's attitude back to a specific
stimulus. Once we've identified a stimulus that produced
certain response, we can predict the individual's behavior.
Furthermore, if we can control the stimulus, we can control the
individual's behavior. There are two kinds of responses:
- elicited response: the response occur in the
presence of a stimulus
- emitted response: the
movement was emitted by the organism - not as a response to a
stimulus. Skinner called this type of response "operant"
indicating that the organism was taking the initiative and
operating on its environment.
Conditioning
There are two forms of conditioning: - Respondent
(Classical ) Conditioning
- A form of learning in
which an old response is evoked by a new stimulus
- Theory
developed by Pavlov
- Found to be used more in the early
years of development and diminishes as we grow older
-
Examples: the deer flees as soon as it smells a hunter; our
saliva begins to flow when we hear dinner bell
-
Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning
- A form of
learning in which a new response is acquired as a result of
satisfying a need
- Developed by Skinner in 1938
-
Technique: provide repeated reward for behavior that comes
closer to what we want. Skinner refined this process and called
this "Behavior Shaping"
- Two types of reinforcement were
used- positive and negative - to increase the probability of the
addition or removal of a certain response
- Human learning
is based more on operant conditioning than the classical one
- Example: when we are thirsty, we turn the faucet
counter-clockwise. If the water flows, we are rewarded and
would do it again next time. Otherwise, we try the other way.
Behavior Modification
The following five
steps can be used to implement a behavior change program:
- Set behavior goals
- Determine appropriate reinforcers
- Select procedures for changing behavior
- Implement
procedures and record results
- Evaluate progress and revise
as needed
Impact of Behaviorism on Instruction
As M. H. Dembo mentioned in Applying Educational
Psychology in the Classroom, "All teachers have a belief or
theory about learning that is the very fabric of their teaching
strategy." Teachers who agreed with the following statements
are supported by the behavioral psychologists: -
Learners need grades, gold stars, and other incentives as
motivation to learn and to accomplish school requirements
-
Students should be graded according to uniform standards of
achievement, which the teacher sets for the class
-
Curriculum should be organized along subject matter lines that
are carefully sequenced
Teachers who accept the
behavioral perspective assume that the behavior of the students
is a response to their past and present environment and that all
behavior is learned. As a result, any behavior can be analyzed
in terms of its reinforcement history. Since learning is a form
of behavior modification, the teacher's responsibility is to
construct an environment in which the correct behavior of the
student is reinforced. The undesired behaviors of the
student in the classroom can be modified using principles of the
behavior modification. Dr. Dembo suggested the following
procedures to control or eliminate undesired classroom
behaviors:
- Strengthening of the desirable behavior
that will compete with and eventually replace undesirable
patterns of behavior.
- Weakening the undesired behavior by
removing the reinforcing events that maintain the behavior.
-
Using the technique of "satiation" which is a procedure that
encourages a person to engage in a problem behavior over and
over again until tired of it.
- Changing the stimulus
condition that influences the behavior.
- Using punishment
to weaken behavior.
One important application of the
operant conditioning introduced in the instruction fields is
Programmed Learning. In this technique subject matter
is broken into small, understandable steps or "frames," each
followed by a question which the student can almost always
answer correctly. The object is to reinforce the learning
process through an immediate response and the reward of getting
it right. The authors of the book
The Learning Gap think that one of the reason that
American school is failing is because we do not use "error"
effectively. "American conceive errors as a possible precursor
of ultimate failure. People should strive to avoid errors and
to give only the correct response - a routine that fits our
culture and has been strengthened by the writings of behavioral
psychologist such as B. F. Skinner."
Impact of Behaviorism on Instructional Technology
Behavior
principles have proven useful for managing both classroom
behaviors and instruction delivery. Behaviorism has influenced
the development and design of several technologies.
- Teaching Machines uses the principles of the
programmed learning to provide a self-pacing delivery of the
instruction. In 1968, Fred Keller proposed using the
Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) for college
instruction. There are two programming designs for this
technology: linear and branch. Linear design lays out the
sequence of frames for all students to follow; whereas, in
branch design, a student's response determines what follows.
- Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) The rapid
growth of the personal computers in the society facilitated the
explosion of educational (instructional) software packages.
Hundreds of software products hit the market every school year.
No doubt, the first generation of the software was generally
designed linearly. Key behavior modification principles are used to
program these applications. These principles include:
- Stating the purpose of the software
- Apply the appropriate reinforcer - text or visual or audio
- depending on the application, shaping, chaining, modeling, punishment, and award principles are used
- Very often, a scoring (monitoring) system is present
- Provides the status of progress
CAI comes in various forms:
Drill and Practice Activities, Simulations, and Tutorials.
Electronic learning could be fun using multi-media approach, but
the educators do not think the CAIs can replace active classroom
teachers.
- Virtual Reality According to Chris Byrne
of Human Interface Technology Lab, Virtual Reality has great potential in the
education field. Byrne thinks that VR is particularly useful in
the science field because it provides the students a 3D view of
the world from inside the world. I feel that the weakness of
CAI is the human interface and the lack of appropriate form of
reward (reinforcement). VR can definitely address the human
interface part if it can provide a "real" teacher to give
instruction. Furthermore, if the student can create their own
teacher image to teach them. Then, the reward system would be
more effective comparing with a mechanical "good job" sign. The
VR teacher can even give the child a pat on the head when called
for. VR creates a brand new learning environment for the
world to explore. Behavioristic principles, like other learning
theories, will play a major role in the building of this
environment.
Conclusion
Critics say that
Behaviorism oversimplifies human behavior and that it sees the
human being as an automaton instead of a creature of will and
purpose. Regardless of what the critics say, the behavioristic
approach has exerted a strong influence on American psychology.
It has triggered scientific experiments and the use of statistical
procedures. Most importantly, it has turned the attention of
psychology to solving real behavior-related problems. Since
learning is a form of behavior change, the behavior modification
procedures developed by behaviorists have proven useful to
many school teachers. The footprints of this set of procedures
can be found in many existing CAI packages. Behaviorism has had
major influence in the learning field and it will continue to
play an important part in it.
References:
Charles, C. M. (1976).
Educational Psychology, The Instructional Endeavor . The C.
V. Mosby Company. Dembo, Myron H. (1988). Applying
Educational Psychology in the Classroom. Longman Inc.
Dr
iscoll, Marcy P. (1994). Psychology of Learning for
Instruction. Allyn and Bacon.
Goldenson, Robert M.
(1970). The Encyclopedia of Human Behavior: Psychology,
Psychiatry, and Mental Health. Doubleday & Company.
Stevenson, Harold W. and Stigler, James W. (1992). The
Learning Gap. Simon & Schuster.
Reviewer: Erika
Black Updated: June 13,1995 Send comment to
inst1229@cl.uh.edu