Draft of paper submitted for publication to TEACHING SOCIOLOGY.
With the exception of an article by Hiltz and Meinke (1989) there has been virtually no discussion of distance learning in the pages of Teaching Sociology. However, distance learning is now a growth industry in higher education. As new and more sophisticated educational technologies are developed, the opportunities for universities and colleges to expand the scale and scope of their operations are enhanced. Educational institutions across the nation are currently scrambling to develop distance learning programs that will keep them in step with the competition. These programs utilize a variety of technologies -- from video to teleconferencing to the internet -- to reach remote student populations. It is likely that sociology departments and faculty will be asked to participate and offer courses using these new technologies. A central challenge will be to develop, apply, and maintain sound pedagogical principles for this emerging educational delivery system. In the process, we may discover some new pedagogical techniques that will address the oft-cited concerns about student engagement and participation.
This paper will address a number of topics related to the development and teaching of a particular type of distance learning course using what I refer to as asynchronous learning networks (ALNs). The material in this paper stems from my involvement in a State University of New York distance learning project (the SUNY Learning Network) and my experience teaching an ALN sociology course titled "Social and Economic Development". The specific topics to be discussed include the objectives of the distance learning project, the technology used for the ALN course, some of the pedagogical principles and strategies informing the development and teaching of the course, and several limitations of this particular learning mode. I conclude with some comments on the potential for ALNs to transform standard pedagogical practices.
THE COMPUTER MEDIATED DISTANCE LEARNING PROJECT
In the Fall of 1994 the State University of New York announced the initiation of a learning network designed to assist adult learners in obtaining the baccalaureate degree. A primary objective of the project is to increase access to higher education for those adults who work full-time, have heavy family obligations, and/or are placebound and, therefore, cannot attend college classroom courses. Using asynchronous computer-mediated instruction, the focus is on distance learning that is both interactive with faculty and collaborative with other students. Courses are delivered "on-line" to remote off-campus locations -- either in students' homes or at regional learning support sites established at regional community colleges. Students are able to access college-level coursework without the potentially exclusionary constraints of having to be present at a specific location during a scheduled time. It is this feature of ALNs -- the ability of students to enter the "classroom" and engage the material anytime and anyplace -- that makes this mode of learning "asynchronous".
SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGY AND COURSE DESIGN
The Software
A critical component of distance learning is the software used for organizing the course and communicating with students. Lotus Notes is designed specifically for this kind of task. Lotus Notes is a form of "groupware" that allows individuals, teams and groups to access, track, share and organize information from multiple computing platforms and locations through a client/server structure.
When used for distance learning, Lotus Notes enables students to view lecture material, receive instructions and assignments, ask questions, integrate reading and research material, submit assignments/papers/exams, and participate in class discussions at work, at home, or even while traveling. Through the process of replication, students download or receive new and revised documents, electronic mail, and other course materials from a server, while simultaneously uploading or sending assignments, mail messages, and other forms of class participation to the server. Meanwhile, the instructor can continually deposit new material and information for student access, moderate discussions, read and comment on assignments, offer continual feedback, and receive student submissions. Since the students and the instructor will be connecting to the server at different times throughout the day, there is no "real time" conferencing or interaction. Rather, the student and faculty submissions to the server are placed in databases to be read by the intended recipients when they decide to connect and replicate.
Groupware programs, such as Lotus Notes, obviously provide a greater number of features than a simple e-mail or listserve system. There are a number of other groupware software packages that possess some of the features found in Lotus Notes. HyperNews combines the hypermedia of the World Wide Web with the conferencing system of a Usenet discussion group allowing readers to post "base articles" (which could be reading assignments, class discussion questions, or written assignments) and submit replies or responses. The submissions are organized in an indented tree format with graphic symbols indicating the nature of the response (e.g. agreement, disagreement, approval, etc.) to facilitate easy browsing through topics and submissions. I use HyperNews in some of my regular classroom courses as a way to extend classroom discussion and interaction. HyperNews is relatively easy to set up and can be downloaded from the HyperNews web site.
FirstClass is another widely-used communication groupware system that comes closest to providing the multiple features found in Lotus Notes. Like Lotus Notes it provides an integrated system for e-mail, conferencing, collaboration, multiple databases, and multi-platform communication. Institutions using FirstClass or Lotus Notes must purchase a site license with cost based upon several factors such as student FTE's. In addition, these groupware also require computer system administration to ensure their smooth functioning across courses.1
The "Virtual Classroom" and the Databases Hiltz (1994:3) uses the term Virtual Classroom to describe "a teaching and learning environment located within a computer-mediated communication system. Rather than being built of bricks and boards, it consists of a set of group communication and work 'spaces' and facilities, which are constructed in software. Some of these communication structures resemble facilities or procedures used in traditional classrooms. Others support forms of interaction that would be difficult or impossible in the 'face-to-face' environment".
The course material and activities accessed by my students -- syllabi, study guides, lecture notes, writing assignments, discussion groups -- are found in databases. This is how information is organized using Lotus Notes (see Figure 1). Thus, course development and virtual classroom activities revolve around the function and content of each database.
The Social and Economic Development course utilized four primary content databases. The first contained introductory materials such as the course syllabus, a list of course topics to be covered during the semester, a list of required books, information on how to approach the course, how the students will be graded, academic expectations, and some general points about the distinctive elements of an ALN course. This database also contained two initial assignments intended to familiarize the students with the e-mail procedure in Lotus Notes, and introduce themselves, through a Student Profile document, to other members of the class.
A second database was devoted to course assignments. Figure 2 displays the open assignment database. An assignment document was created for each week (see the document labeled "Assignment for January 24-26" in Figure 2) of the semester. These contained instructions on what to read, class discussion questions related to the reading material or relevant current events, and an occasional written assignment. These assignments were posted in the assignment database at the beginning of each week. Figure 3 displays the initial course assignment.
The weekly assignment structure was designed to parallel the organization of a traditional classroom course. It was also intended as a means for students to participate collectively in discussion activities related to common reading materials and course topics. Because the technology allows for significant interaction, I did not want members of the class to proceed through the course in a self-paced manner. This would have precluded class discussion. I wanted to create a classroom-type environment in which members of the class engage in discussions that are mutually beneficial and part of a collaborative/interactive process.
A third database contained some short readings and study guides for the required books. It is important to note that the bulk of the reading material was contained in hardcopy form in books that students could purchase from a local bookstore, or order by mail. Long and extensive readings were not placed in the databases. Most students prefer to sit and read in a comfortable location rather than in front of a computer screen. Therefore, the readings contained in this database were relatively short, maybe one to five pages, and designed to supplement the assignments, hardcopy readings, and class discussions. These short readings were either lecture materials or summaries of news and research articles relating to course topics.
A fourth database was set up to receive all postings submitted to an internet listserve group on International Political Economy. This listserve group exchanges information and discusses topics related to the political economy of national and global development. Participants are primarily academics and researchers in the social sciences. All items submitted to the listserve newsgroup were automatically deposited in the database. Each day I reviewed the items and retained those postings that were relevant to the course material or of potential interest to students. I then directed the students to examine particular postings and also encouraged them to use this material in developing their written assignments and essays.
Two additional databases were included in the students' Lotus Notes window. One was a discussion database for students only. The database was designed to prevent the instructor from either submitting or reading database postings. These databases are sometimes referred to as student "lounges" or "pubs". They give students the opportunity to communicate freely and exchange information without the inhibitions that might arise if messages are reviewed by the instructor. Just as students are able to have private discussions about the course in a conventional classroom, they should also be able to discuss these matters in an ALN course.
A final database that appears in the student's workspace is a personal mailbox containing all e-mail messages sent directly to them by the instructor, other students, or SUNY Learning Network administrators.
The students did not need to open or check each database every time they connected to the server. The assignment database served as the depository for weekly reading and writing assignments and class discussion questions, and students were informed that this was the only database they needed to check each time they replicated. If the student had received e-mail, a message would appear at the bottom of their computer screen indicating the presence of new mail..
PEDAGOGICAL PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES
As a number of writers have noted (Shale 1990), the term "distance learning" is regarded by some as an oxymoron since the term distance implies the separation of teacher and student, while learning is viewed as a social process requiring intensive interaction between students and teachers. A primary concern of many educators centers on the absence of human interaction, class discussion, and instructor feedback and guidance. It is assumed that distance learning must refer to some variant of the correspondence or independent study course. However, asynchronous computer-mediated distance learning addresses, and to some extent remedies, these reservations about the pedagogical soundness of distance education.
Asynchronous learning networks permit the kinds of interaction, feedback, and facilitation that have been difficult if not impossible with traditional forms of correspondence distance learning. In order to realize this potential, however, and address the genuine and important concerns that have been raised about this mode of learning, it is vital that one approach the distance learning course with some explicit pedagogical principles and strategies. One should also utilize the technology to its full capacity to close the gap between the physically isolated independent student and other human participants. Below I outline some teaching principles and practices (also see Harasim et al. 1995) that I attempted to incorporate into my Social and Economic Development course. These are interactivity, mediation, active learning, and collaborative learning.
INTERACTIVITY
The Principle. Since many fear that the move toward distance learning will reduce levels of human interaction in the learning process, interactivity is an imperative and foundational principle that should guide ALN courses. Courses should be developed in such a way that they maximize the opportunities for and encourage regularized and on-going interaction between teacher and students, among students, and between students and the learning environment. While distance learning has often promoted the concept of the independent self-directed learner, there appears to be a renewed emphasis and appreciation for the role of interaction and connectivity between students and teachers (Garrison 1990; Shale 1990; Sammons 1990). In this view, learning is viewed as an essentially social process that requires interaction for the purpose of expression, validation, and the development of the self as a knowledgeable learner. At a more basic level, students must be connected to some medium, and receive feedback and encouragement, as a way to maintain interest, attentiveness, and commitment. This is especially true for those students who have had most of their educational experience in a traditional classroom in the presence of teachers and classmates.
The Practice. In order to promote a high level of interactivity I tried to make a connection with the students at the earliest possible point and to maximize the opportunities for interaction throughout the duration of the course. All students enrolled in the class received a letter prior to the start of the semester welcoming them to the class, providing them with a basic outline, encouraging them to get started as soon as possible, and to contact me with any concerns. Once the students actually connected to the Lotus Notes server, and opened the introductory database, they were faced with an immediate set of tasks that involved connecting with the group and interacting with the instructor. The students were asked to fill out a profile describing themselves, their interests, and their reasons for taking the course. This was then shared with other members of the class in the introductory database. In this way, the class members were not entirely anonymous. The students were also asked to send an e-mail message to the instructor. This served the dual purpose of immediately initiating student-faculty interaction, as each e-mail message received by the instructor was answered immediately, as well as providing the students with a technical exercise that familiarized them with the communication system (and hopefully encouraged further electronic communication).
The student-only database also provided an opportunity for on-going student interaction without the oversight or input of the instructor. According to the log maintained by the server administrator, 50 messages had been submitted to this database by the mid-point of the semester (this is the only information received by the instructor about this database).
Interaction between student and instructor also occurred after each assignment or exam was submitted by the student. The instructor could read the exam, embed comments into the text, and return the assignment or exam to the student as part of e-mail communication. Students were able to follow up with questions regarding the grade or instructor comments. During the course of the semester I received well over a hundred e-mail messages from students in the class regarding the reading material, course assignments, the Lotus Notes software, or issues related to student advising. I have never had this level of out-of-class interaction, with such a wide number of students, in a conventional classroom course.
Given the enhanced technological capacities currently available, there is no reason for distance education to involve purely independent isolated forms of learning. The Lotus Notes software and other available forms of groupware are designed to maximize the level of interaction between parties in a variety of ways. First, all students are equipped with a mailbox and are able to send and read mail at their convenience. Second, and more critical for the students, "buttons" (icon-like objects at the top and bottom of documents) are included in all of the course documents. These are used to ask and send a question to the instructor about the material being read, the assignment being completed, or the essay being written (see bottom of Figure 3). The students simply click on the button and are provided with a mail memo template addressed to the instructor. Once completed, the mail memo, containing a comment, question, or concern, can be sent to the instructor at the click of a "send" button. The piece of mail then resides in the students out-going mailbox and is uploaded to the server, and placed in the instructors mailbox, when they replicate.
The importance of constant interaction with students can not be overemphasized. Prior studies and student evaluations of distance-learning projects (Hiltz 1994), indicate that responsiveness is viewed as one of the most important elements of a successful distance learning course.
MEDIATION
The Principle. In a conventional classroom, instructors have the ability to situate reading material, ideas, and concepts within a general theoretical framework through the lecture mode. Since there are no lectures per se with ALNs, there is no opportunity to introduce students to the reading material in this particular fashion. Therefore, after designing the course to ensure an adequate level of interaction, the instructor must develop some alternative mediation strategies.
A number of pedagogical theorists have emphasized the importance of mediation as a means of intervention between the student and the subject matter, as a way to guide the learning process toward particular outcomes, and connect a body of knowledge with a student's cognitive framework (Petrie 1981). This can be done in the ALN course by posing and framing questions about the course material that require students to apply the knowledge to a familiar context. Sammons (1990) suggests the use of "disturbances" that challenge the students conceptual schemes or that appear as irregularities requiring a process of assimilation or accommodation toward a new, or revised, conceptual scheme. Similarly, Goldsmid and Wilson (1980:297) , see the role of the instructor as a "benign disrupter" who arranges the material in such a way that students "bump into the unexpected" and ultimately may have to "alter an existing framework or create a new one." Sociology provides particularly fertile subject matter for this purpose.
The role of mediation is also critical when group discussions are employed. As students respond to class discussion questions, and share their answers and reactions with other students, the instructor should take responsibility for organizing and synthesizing the various student contributions. Feenberg (1986/87) has used the term "weaving" to describe the process of summarizing student contributions in such a way that new issues and questions emerge. These, in turn, stimulate additional student interaction and discussion. He notes the particular importance of this process in a computer-mediated course because items are submitted by students at different times, and in a non-sequential manner. Under these conditions it is imperative that the loose threads be tied together. Responding to the student items in this way also serves as a form of validation and reinforcement that encourages sustained participation throughout the course.
The Practice. In the Social and Economic Development course I pursued a number of mediation strategies. One form involved mediating between the students and the course material. Each weekly assignment included a question for class discussion that was designed to force the students to apply some of the theoretical issues to either their own way of thinking, or to current events related to social and economic development. For example, at the start of the course, I asked the student to identify the particular factors they viewed as most important in explaining the socio-economic development of nations. They were later asked to compare the factors they had chosen with those contained in the various theories presented in the reading. This can be viewed as a variant of the "disturbance" strategy since the students typically responded by attempting to assimilate or accommodate the theoretical material into their own particular conceptual scheme.
A second form of mediation involved the regular practice of summarizing student discussion comments after they had been submitted. Sometimes I waited for a few student comments to appear; other times I simply responded to a single contribution as a way to encourage additional participation. When several items were submitted, I tried to point to the areas of correspondence as well as the points of opposition. This often resulted in further clarification by the students about their actual position, or the entry by another student who would take sides or try to reconcile the original arguments or comments. In either case, mediation in group discussion provided the kind of instructor feedback that seemed to sustain student participation. It also allowed me to raise new questions that prompted other students to enter the fray.
A third opportunity for mediation was afforded with the various written assignments. I developed a number of assignments that required students to evaluate a particular claim on the basis of several sources of information. To give one example, the first written assignment provided students with actual cross-national data on the tax burden and the growth rates of seven major industrial societies. The students were asked to evaluate, based on the data, the claim that high taxes are responsible for the relatively weak performance of the US economy. The data indicated that the US has the lowest tax burden and the lowest growth rate among the seven nations. Since most students are familiar with, and have come to believe, the "high taxes-low growth" claim, they are quite surprised by these statistics. They are then asked a series of questions: Why do they think there is such an obsession with taxation in the US, given the relatively low tax burden? What, in fact, is the relationship between taxation and growth? Are tax rates an important factor in predicting economic performance? What other factors might be equally, or more, important? This exercise served as another kind of "disturbance" or "disruption". Cross-cultural, or cross-national, materials and data are particularly useful for this purpose (see Durham 1990). The data violated what has become a standard assumption. It also forced the students to explain the low growth rate in the US in different theoretical terms, and inevitably resulted in the listing of other potentially more important growth factors. Students then shared their responses with other students in the class, which provoked further debate on the taxes and growth question.
ACTIVE LEARNING
The Principle. The notion of active learning suggests that students must do more than simply receive information and substantive material but also must engage and participate in activities and tasks that enhance comprehension, understanding, and knowledge. There are countless ways in which students can "learn by doing". One of the most important is writing. This involves not the regurgitation of written or lecture material, but the opportunity to develop and demonstrate understanding by reorganizing and reshaping the information, concepts, and substantive content into a form that can more readily be communicated. The process of writing can be described as an emergent process in the sense that the translation of ideas into written prose often produces a clearer and more systematic understanding of the material. When we organize material for the purpose of communicating ideas to others, we often make the material clearer to ourselves.
Among those who advocate a "writing to learn" pedagogy ( Coker and Scarboro 1990; Mayher et al. 1983; Moore 1992), it is the composition process that is most critical. "Writing to learn depends upon an active rather than passive approach to learning...Research on the composing process has shown that writing is not a simple process of transcribing a predetermined text, but a complex process of discovery" (Mayher et al 1983: 78). In an ALN course, all interaction occurs via the written word. Therefore, there are countless opportunities for writing-to-learn exercises.
The Practice. In the Social and Economic Development course the students were asked to formulate responses to discussion questions each week, submit short written assignments, and compose several extended essays. The questions and assignments posed to students were not designed to elicit a single correct answer, but were worded in such a way that the students had a great deal of latitude in developing an answer, response, or position.
In the ALN course all student work is "open book" to the extent that students can consult any materials they wish in formulating a response or composing an essay. Therefore, it makes little sense to ask students a question that requires nothing more than "transcribing a predetermined text". Rather, the questions elicited a variety of possible "correct" responses or answers. Students were expected to make sense of the material, organize it in some logical fashion, synthesize information, and develop some connections between the abstract concepts and real world issues.
It is important to note, at this point, that the response to class discussion questions in the ALN course far exceeded -- in both quantity and quality -- anything I have experienced in a conventional classroom setting. This may be explained by a number of unique dynamics that operate in an ALN course (Harasim 1993). First, in terms of the quantity of responses, students may feel less inhibited to participate when they are not being observed by their classmates. Computer mediation can eliminate much of the anxiety associated with the public expression of ideas and opinions. Second, under an asynchronous learning mode, students have more time to reflect on the question and formulate a coherent response. This may contribute to both quantity and quality. Third, instead of having a single student answer the question immediately, and in the process squelch the opportunity for other students to develop and offer a response, the ALN course provides a forum for the submission of a variety of independent responses that are shared asynchronously. Finally, in terms of the quality of responses, because students are composing answers or responses that will be read by both the instructor and other students in the class, they are motivated to demonstrate a solid grasp of the material and present their arguments in a convincing way. These forces tend to produce a better final product.
The different levels of class participation in the ALN versus conventional classroom course suggests some interesting questions about classroom interaction and communication. In a study of classroom participation by Karp and Yoels (1976), the general finding of very low levels of class participation was explained as a rational response to several factors operating in the classroom. One of the most important was the "consolidation of responsibility" -- the fact that one or a few students carry the participation burden for the entire class. When a question is asked of the class, the regular participants field the question and offer a response. The other students learn to depend on these students, and are able to "free-ride" through the course. A second factor cited for low levels of participation was the perception by students that the faculty member did not want excessive student participation because it would cut into the time devoted to lecture presentation. Third, according to their survey of students, Karp and Yoels reported that many students (70%) did not participate because they felt their ideas "were not well enough formulated" and they did not want to "talk off the top of their heads". Finally, many believed that their mere presence in class, and a demeanor of "civil attention", was all that was required for success in the classroom.
What is especially interesting about these factors is that none of them can be applied to ALNs. The participation of a single student does not relieve others from the responsibility to participate. Since there is no "lecture" presented, nor a designated block of classroom time, "excessive participation" does not preclude or detract from other learning activities. In the ALN course, students are not asked to "talk off the top of their heads" but are given ample opportunity and time to formulate and articulate a response. Since there is no face-to-face interaction in ALNs, "civil attention" (or, in internet lingo, "lurking") is equivalent to being absent. and cannot substitute for active participation. In short, the factors that tend to discourage participation in a conventional classroom setting do not operate in an ALN course. This suggests the potential for a significantly higher level of student participation and engagement in ALN courses (Harasim 1990; Harasim et al. 1995).
COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
The Principle. According to Hiltz (1994: 23), collaborative learning "means that both teachers and learners are active participants in the learning process; knowledge is not something that is 'delivered' to students, but rather something that emerges from active dialogue among those who seek to understand and apply concepts and techniques." As the final pedagogical principle informing the ALN course, collaborative learning subsumes all of the other pedagogical principles -- interactivity, mediation, and active learning. Obviously, all members of the class must be able to interact in order to engage in the requisite dialogue and the sharing of ideas that produces "emergent knowledge". Further, the instructor must play a mediating role in creating a class climate that is conducive to, and develop techniques that encourage, interaction and the exchange of information among students. Finally, the participation of students in the exchange of ideas entails both the kind of active learning described above -- drafting discussion items, written assignments, reactions, and essays -- as well as sharing these written materials and receiving reactions from other class members. In short, an effective collaborative learning strategy will inevitably address and involve the central pedagogical principles discussed above (see Rau and Heyl 1990).
The Practice. Collaborative learning is enhanced with the design and use of the discussion databases in Lotus Notes. These databases are designed to allow a workgroup to share and exchange thoughts and ideas on a variety of topics. The items submitted into the discussion database can be organized or viewed by topic, author, or chronologically. All members of the class have the opportunity to submit a new item for discussion, respond to an item already submitted, or respond to a response. These various options are selected by the user and they will appear in the database as main items or responses. In the asynchronous mode, members of the class are able to read and respond to each others work without being present or logged-in at the same time. They can read submissions and create or respond to items at their convenience. As Florini (1990: 278) notes in her discussion of the role of computer conferencing in computer-mediated courses, "Computer conferencing is a sophisticated variation of e-mail that supports communication within groups...No-one needs to be available at the same time or in the same place to participate in the discussion, which simply progresses as individual group members send, receive and reply to messages". The instructor is also in a strong position to mediate the discussion at any time by either responding to the student submissions or by initiating a new discussion topic.
In the Social and Economic Development course, collaborative learning took two basic forms. First, there were the constant and on-going class discussions that revolved around a question posed to the students in each weekly assignment document. These questions related directly to the week's readings -- for example, asking students to react or express an opinion about a particular theory or approach. On other occasions, the students were asked to apply a particular theoretical or conceptual idea to some current event or issue. Frequently, in the middle of the week, I would add an additional item to the class discussion database that pertained to something in the news relating to socio-economic development. There was never a shortage of material, and students were encouraged to consult various sources, such as Business Week or the New York Times, for further background information. The intended objective was to engage as many students as possible in the class discussion dialogue. When students were given the essay exams they were also encouraged to draw upon and consult the student-submitted items that were a permanent part of the database. What distinguished the ALN class discussion from the conventional classroom mode was the quality of the student contributions and the fact that these items existed in written form as part of a database, which allowed them to be retrieved and consulted by other students. As Hiltz (1994: 6-7) has noted, "asynchronicity, which may at first seem to be a disadvantage, is the single most important factor in creating a collaborative teaching and learning environment. It means every participant may contribute at the times, places, and pace that is most convenient for him or her...Whenever a student has an idea or question, it can be communicated, while it is fresh."
A second collaborative learning procedure involved the sharing of some of the written assignments submitted by students. These relatively short-answer assignments, scattered throughout the semester, required students to answer a series of questions based on some reading material placed in the readings database. When I shared the work, I asked students to comment on the strengths and weaknesses of the piece;. to indicate whether the student made a clear presentation; whether the argument or answer was convincing; what suggestions the students might make to strengthen the piece. While this exercise elicited some student response, it is clearly a major challenges to convince students that they could and should comment on the work of their fellow classmates.
Together, these four pedagogical principles can provide a framework for designing and organizing the ALN course. To a large extent, most traditional classroom courses employ, at least theoretically, these basic principles. They are often an implicit part of standard pedagogical practice. One of the challenges of teaching an ALN course is to retain, and if possible enhance, those positive aspects of the traditional classroom course in the asynchronous learning environment. This often requires a much more explicit and self-conscious effort at developing and implementing particular pedagogical strategies. In the process, it is likely that we will also rethink and possibly restructure the way we teach subsequent traditional classroom courses.
SOCIOLOGY AND ALN PEDAGOGY
Sociology, or social science, may be an especially appropriate content matter for the employment of ALNs and for the application and realization of the various pedagogical principles and practices. On the other hand, courses that are highly technical, or those that involve drill-and-practice tasks and pure memorization, are unlikely to entail a great deal of interaction, active learning, or discussion (Harasim et al. 1995:24-27). Since these are the richest features of asynchronous learning, the course content should be conducive to their attainment. As Harasim et al. (1995:25) advise: "Any course that emphasizes in-depth coverage and discussion of materials can be effectively conducted entirely on-line, as can any course with extensive writing assignments. The sharing of ideas and collaborative tasks...are particularly effective on-line. Generally, these activities use discussion, brainstorming, problem-solving, group work, and reflective and analytical contributions based on special projects or research." .
Clearly, sociology courses meet these criteria, especially at the junior and senior level.. Sociology involves multiple perspectives and approaches rather than a pre-programmed set of procedures and practices. Most students are able, based on their own personal experiences and exposure to popular and academic literature, to express viewpoints on a wide variety of social issues and problems. The fact that there are multiple perspectives, theoretical frameworks, political positions, and policy implications, further enhances the prospect for a lively exchange among students and faculty.
The Social and Economic Development course was an upper division elective that attracted primarily juniors and seniors who had already taken some foundation courses in the social sciences. The students had the requisite background and were selecting the course as an elective in which they presumably had some interest. The level of discussion and engagement by the vast majority of students would seem to support this assumption. During the semester in which I taught the course there was also a great deal of media coverage devoted to socio-economic issues. The Republican primary was going full-tilt and the various candidates were offering their economic plans -- from Forbes' flat tax proposal to Buchanan's populist manifesto. There were also several major news reports about the economy including the New York Times' extended piece on "The Downsizing of America". Together, these events and reports generated a great deal of discussion and had direct relevance to the theoretical and policy issues central to the course. These kinds of links are quite common in most sociology courses and can provide the basis for extended discussion and intellectual interchange.
SOME FURTHER ISSUES TO CONSIDER
While my experience with the ALN course was generally positive, and I believe this mode of distance learning holds great promise and offers some special features that actually enhance the learning process, a number of qualifications and problematic aspects should also be noted. First, ALNs cannot and will not become a wholesale substitute for the conventional classroom. For some courses, and for many students, there is no substitute for face-to-face interaction as a mode of communication and learning. It is best to think of ALNs as an alternative mode of course delivery that expands access to higher education for students who might not otherwise be able to enroll in college coursework. For other students who have major scheduling constraints that would only allow them to attend college part-time, the availability of an ALN course allows these students to achieve fulltime status (this also frequently impacts on financial aid eligibility). ALNs also allows facilitate certain pedagogical strategies -- such as those outlined above -- which are difficult if not impossible in the conventional classroom.
With regard to some of the drawbacks, one of the first points that should be noted concerns the technologically dependent nature of this mode of learning. This creates a unique set of obstacles and challenges that are often beyond the control of the instructor. This became clear during the first week of class when a majority of students were unable to connect with the server and course databases (and, therefore, unable to start the class) due to administrative and/or student failure in mailing and ordering the necessary computer-related materials and documentation, technical difficulties with the software/modem interface, or simply problems understanding the procedures used to access, download, and upload the necessary databases. Together, these various factors contributed to a delay in the start of the course. The official first week of classes found a very small number of students actually participating. Only after two to three weeks were all the enrolled students actively involved in the class. In short, if the students are unable to connect with the class using the available technology, they are absent.
A second issue involves the uneven class participation of students. This is an aspect of any class in which students bring different levels of skill and confidence to the learning site. However, the asynchronous nature of the course does allows students time to reflect upon questions and compose responses. Therefore, to a large extent, my expectations for class participation were greater than they would be for a conventional classroom course. While I have already emphasized the quantity and quality of student participation, there were still a number of students (far fewer than in a conventional classroom) who were totally "absent" in the sense that they submitted nothing to class discussion and did not communicate via e-mail. I tried to deal with this problem by sending occasional e-mail messages to the entire class -- though aimed at this silent minority -- encouraging all students to ask questions, respond to other student comments, and so forth. This was followed by e-mail messages sent directly to the non-participants. For a small number of students, this strategy did not work and they remained marginalized from the classroom activities. The only way I could determine that they were still "connected" was when they sent in their written assignments or exams. For this group, a major benefit of this mode of education -- revolving largely around the interactivity and active learning tasks -- may not be realized.
One obvious strategy to stimulate class participation is to make it a course requirement that will have some impact on the students' final grade. While I chose not to use this technique in my course, (it often produces obligatory, superficial, and non-substantive input) other instructors have found that it is a useful way to ensure wider student engagement. Further, with all student submissions to class discussion retained as permanent documents in the database, the instructor can keep an accurate record of both the quality and quantity of student input.
A third issue, related to the second, concerns the students in the course who did poorly, primarily on the basis of poorly-written assignments and inadequate written communication skills. These students require special attention, in the form of guidance and advising, that is difficult to impart in an ALN course. In the traditional classroom the instructor is able to talk to these students and encourage them to stop by to discuss their work and the various ways they might improve their performance in the course. It is difficult to effectively communicate these concerns via e-mail though I made every effort to do so. A poor grade or critical comments on an assignment can result in further withdrawal, formally or informally, from the course. This suggests that students who are cognitively mature and relatively confident in their ability to express themselves with the written word may be the most successful in these types of courses (Hiltz 1994).
The issue here is not technological literacy. The students in my course had little difficulty mastering the basic Lotus Notes tasks. Rather, it seemed to be the poorly developed textual skills that created the greatest obstacles for some students. This problem may be addressed as students enroll in courses that supplement regular classroom meetings with computer conferencing exercises. In this way students can develop textual skills in a gradual fashion and more familiar environment.
Given the nature of the ALN medium, and the particular skills and competencies needed to succeed in this learning environment, it is imperative that students enrolling in these courses be screened in some fashion, and provided with sufficient information about the technical requirements and academic demands of an ALN course. The screening process can involve, for example, the permission of the instructor before students are allowed to enroll in the course. Thus, instructors would be able to provide the student with the necessary information on which to make an informed decision about whether to enroll in the ALN course. This is important because ALN courses tend to have higher student attrition rates (my course begin with fifteen students and ended with twelve) Hiltz's (1994) empirical study of the virtual classroom also indicates that the "pre-use attitudes and expectations" of students regarding computer-mediated instruction are significant predictors of student success.
CONCLUSION
The pages of Teaching Sociology are filled with suggestions and advice about teaching practices and pedagogical strategies designed to encourage critical thinking, active learning, writing skills, and student engagement and participation. With few exceptions, these article and notes assume that teaching sociology means meeting students in a conventional classroom for a specified period of time. When alternative non-classroom modes of course delivery are suggested, such as ALNs, most academics reject these alternatives as pedagogically inferior to and low quality substitutes for "the real thing". My experience teaching an asynchronous course has led me to a different conclusion. These non-classroom alternatives may be the most effective means for realizing the various teaching objectives we claim to seek.
Let me provide a concrete illustration from this journal. In a recent article, Martha E. Gimenez (1989) reports on the problem of "the silent classroom". Gimenez tells us that she employs a "critical perspective" in the classroom aimed at challenging students' preconceived notions and stereotypes about the social world. This approach, she believes, should provoke the students, create cognitive disturbances, and stimulate debate and discussion. Instead, unfortunately, the students "remain mostly silent, busily taking notes and trying to get every word on paper, as if that process would somehow help them learn" (Gimenez 1989:187). Gimenez considers a wide variety of possible explanations for this disappointing but all-too-common state of affairs including, to her credit, the possibility that her reliance on lecture may discourage student participation and discussion. There is, however, a more fundamental explanation for this student behavior -- it is learned. In most college classes, students are expected to sit silently, receive information, and take lecture notes. If students interrupt a lecture, or sit through class without taking notes, they are violating the normative order of the classroom. Furthermore, as discussed above and elaborated by Karp and Yoels (1976) , class participation is constrained by time limits, inhibitions, and student perceptions about faculty expectations.
When you remove students and faculty from the conventional classroom setting, students are freed from many of these constraints and role behaviors, and faculty are forced to devise alternatives to the lecture format. This opens up the possibility and opportunity for new learning behavior on the part of students and new pedagogical strategies on the part of faculty. Prior to teaching an asynchronous on-line course, I gave little thought to the question of pedagogy or the student learning process. When I realized I would no longer have the control and security inherent in the classroom setting, or be able to employ the lecture mode, I began to consider the question of how students would engage the material and how they would participate in the learning process. This led to a self-conscious effort to design the various pedagogical strategies outlined above.
Returning to the dilemma of the silent classroom, I have absolutely no doubt that Gimenez would witness a dramatic increase in class participation if she delivered her course using ALNs. The seemingly simple (but fiercely resisted) act of removing students from the traditional classroom setting has the effect of eliminating the one-way communication of the lecture mode, and allowing students extended time and opportunity to react, respond, and interact with the material and each other.
The moral of this tale is not that all college courses should employ ALNs, but rather that we need to break with some of the sacred assumptions about the one best learning mode if we are to "reeingineer" the teaching and learning process (see Hedrick 1993) and actually achieve some of our most widely-desired learning objectives.
It is instructive to note that one of the published responses to the Gimenez article, written by Richard A. Wright (1989), suggests a "radical dialogue-oriented pedagogical model" that includes "improvisation, in which the professor dispenses with structured classroom lectures to adopt an extemporaneous , 'emergent' presentation style" and "colearning, in which the professor adopts the role of a partner in learning with students in classroom interaction" (1989: 195). It is much easier to realize the dialogue-oriented model when one can also dispense with the classroom setting. It is this social setting that poses one of the greatest obstacles to a successful dialogical pedagogy. It is for this reason that an increasing number of faculty are turning to various forms of computer conferencing technology (e.g. HyperNews) to extend the classroom beyond the four walls and fifty minute time limit.
Now is the time for a serious discussion about the relationship between emerging information technologies and the prospects for genuine pedagogical experimentation.
REFERENCES
1 At present, Lotus Notes is the industry standard and its position
may be further bolstered by two recent development innovations. First,
there is a new version of Lotus Notes designed exclusively for educational
(versus corporate) purposes called Learning Space. This groupware has pre-designed
database modules for the course schedule, the class discussion, student
profiles, readings and other multimedia clips, and an instructor gradebook.
Second, the creation of a software called Domino will allow Learning Space
(or Lotus Notes) databases to be converted into a web-accessable form.
This will permit students to access the ALN courses without having to load
the Lotus software on their machines.